Humanism. Contents:
1 Ages of Human History
2 Early Humanism
3 Contemporary Humanism
4 Our Humanist Group. Communication
1 Ages of Human History
Ancient History: Begins with the invention of writing (approx. 3000 BC) and ends with the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD
Middle Ages: Begins in 476 AD and ends with the fall of the Eastern Roman Empire (Constantinople) in 1453, or, alternatively, with the discovery of America in 1492
Modern Age: Begins in 1453 or 1492 and extends to the French Revolution in 1789
Contemporary Age: Begins in 1789 and continues to the present day
Humanism emerged at the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the Modern Age.
2 The First Humanism
The first Humanism, known as Renaissance Humanism, arose in Italy during the 14th century, especially in cities like Florence.
The Renaissance Humanist:
The historical context most closely associated with humanism is, without a doubt, the Renaissance. It was during this period that humanism emerged as a philosophical, intellectual, and cultural movement, originating in 14th-century Italy. Throughout this century and the next, it spread across Europe, breaking with the theocentrism that had characterized the Catholic mindset of the Middle Ages.
It should be noted that Renaissance humanism would not have had such a powerful impact without an event that would mark a turning point in Western history: the invention of the printing press. In 1450, Johannes Gutenberg created his machine, which, while not the first printing press in history (older examples exist in Asia), was the one that gave impetus to the powerful cultural phenomenon that was the Renaissance.
With the printing press, hundreds of books, banners, and pamphlets could be produced at an unprecedented speed, also allowing for the printing of texts with critical messages that spread faster than the censors of the time could prevent. Thanks to this invention, the humanist ideas that accompanied the Renaissance fragmented medieval theories and allowed for the progress of culture.
It was from that time onward that European society began to shift away from placing God at the center of everything, giving way to anthropocentrism, that is, giving more importance to the human being and establishing them as the measure of all things. Thus, Renaissance humanism exalts the qualities of human nature as aspects of high value that serve to establish the cultural parameters of a society.
Humanist philosophy offered new perspectives for reflecting on and thinking about art, science, and politics, bringing about a true revolution in both the cultural and social spheres. This is why the Renaissance is considered the intermediate step between the Middle Ages and Modernity, leaning more towards the latter in its conception of humankind.
Renaissance humanism revived the classical works of Greco-Roman authors, finding in them models of truth, beauty, and perfection. Humanist artists and intellectuals sought to explore the origins of Western culture, bring it into the modern era, and learn from it. The names of many humanists from this period have become legendary, such as Erasmus of Rotterdam, William of Ockham, Francesco Petrarch, Thomas More, Vincenç Vives, and Michel de Montaigne.
There was also a secularization of scientific knowledge, freeing it from the Church's monopoly and making it accessible to the general population. Science was gaining strength and acquiring a functional character while still satisfying curiosity. Physics, mathematics, engineering, and medicine expanded their body of knowledge, and things that were previously unthinkable, such as dissecting corpses, became more commonplace, focused on understanding both the human body and soul in depth and enhancing the value of human beings.
Renaissance humanists, in addition to expanding their knowledge, researched and experimented to improve people's lives, with the clear objective of bringing happiness and freedom to humankind. This is why they were also so interested in classical works, such as those of Aristotle and Plato, intending to provide the population with knowledge and make them more cultured and independent, and therefore less credulous and susceptible to abuse by those in power.
Without losing sight of the humanism that emerged during the Renaissance, we can highlight some of its fundamental characteristics to better understand its profound impact on Western history.
- Anthropocentric worldview. Human beings are both natural and historical beings.
- Abandonment of the theocentric worldview.
- Use of human reason as the driving force in the search for answers.
- Reduced importance of beliefs and dogmas of faith as sources of knowledge.
- Emphasis on the Greek and Latin classics.
- Promotion of the study of vernacular languages.
- Promotion of the dissemination of knowledge in vernacular languages.
- Development of multiple sciences related to the human spirit.
- Research for the holistic development of humankind: physical and spiritual, aesthetic and religious.
Its first great representative is considered to be Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374), often called the "father of Humanism." Humanists sought to revive the classical culture of Greece and Rome and place humankind at the center of intellectual reflection, without necessarily abandoning the Christian religion.
Simplified Chronology:
14th Century (1300s): Birth of Humanism in Italy.
15th Century: Expansion throughout Europe.
16th Century: Peak influence during the Renaissance.
Other prominent humanists included:
Giovanni Boccaccio
Erasmus of Rotterdam
Thomas More
Joan Lluís Vives
Renaissance humanists, in addition to expanding their knowledge, researched and experimented to improve people's lives, with the clear objective of bringing happiness and freedom to humankind. This is why they were also so interested in classical works, such as those of Aristotle and Plato, intending to provide the population with knowledge and make them more cultured and independent, and therefore less credulous and susceptible to abuse by those in power.
Without losing sight of the humanism that emerged during the Renaissance, we can highlight some of its fundamental characteristics to better understand its transcendental importance to the history of the West.
- Anthropocentric worldview. Human beings are natural and historical beings.
- Abandonment of the theocentric worldview.
- Use of human reason as the driving force in the search for answers.
- Lesser importance of beliefs and dogmas of faith as sources of knowledge.
- Emphasis on the Greek and Latin classics.
- Promotion of the study of vernacular languages.
- Promotion of the dissemination of knowledge in vernacular languages.
- Development of multiple sciences related to the human spirit.
- Research for the holistic development of humankind: physical and spiritual, aesthetic and religious.
It is considered that its first great representative was Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374), often called the "father of Humanism." Humanists wanted to recover the classical culture of Greece and Rome and place humankind at the center of intellectual reflection, without necessarily abandoning the Christian religion.
This Renaissance Humanism must be distinguished from what we call "humanism" today as a philosophical or general ethical movement.
Historically, when history books mention Humanism, they almost always refer to the cultural movement that arose in Italy in the 14th century and paved the way for the Renaissance.
Therefore, the short answer is: Humanism was born in Italy in the 14th century, with Petrarch as its founding figure.
Main Characteristics of Early Humanism:
The main characteristics of Early Humanism (14th and 15th centuries) are the following:
1. Return to the Classics:
Humanists admired the culture of ancient Greece and Rome and sought out forgotten manuscripts to study and disseminate them. Key authors: Homer, Virgil, Cicero
2. Anthropocentrism:
Without abandoning the Christian faith, humankind became the center of cultural reflection. In contrast to the theocentrism (God is the center) of the Middle Ages, Humanism advocated valuing the capacities and dignity of the human person.
3. Confidence in Reason:
More importance was given to observation, study, and critical thinking than to faith (truths believed but unprovable).
4. Interest in Education:
A well-rounded education based on the so-called "humanities" is promoted: grammar, rhetoric, history, poetry, philosophy, and ethics.
5. Appreciation of Earthly Life:
This life is no longer considered merely a step toward the afterlife; it also deserves to be known, enjoyed, and improved.
6. Development of Critical Thinking
Humanists review ancient texts, compare manuscripts, and question errors transmitted by tradition.
7. Dissemination of Knowledge
The invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in the 15th century greatly facilitates the circulation of books and ideas.
Principal humanists:
Francesco Petrarch, Giovanni Boccaccio, Erasmus of Rotterdam, Thomas More, Joan Lluís Vives, Ramon Llull, who, despite predating Renaissance Humanism, is considered by some scholars to be a precursor due to his reliance on reason and dialogue..
Summary in one sentence:
Humanism was a cultural movement that revived classical values, placed humankind at the center of intellectual interest, and relied on reason, education, and knowledge to understand and improve the world.
Principles of Early Humanism:
The humanist principles of Early Humanism (14th-15th centuries) can be summarized in these fundamental points:
1. Dignity of the human being:
Men and women are beings endowed with reason, freedom, and the capacity for self-improvement. Each person has intrinsic value.
2. Confidence in reason:
Human reason is an essential tool for understanding reality, seeking truth, and making decisions.
3. Holistic education:
Education is the means to develop human capacities. Humanists advocated for training in languages, literature, history, philosophy, and science.
4. Return to classical sources:
It is necessary to study the Greek and Roman authors directly, without relying solely on later commentaries or interpretations.
5. Critical Thinking:
Ideas, texts, and traditions should be critically examined and not accepted simply on the basis of authority.
6. Value of Earthly Life:
Human life in this world is important and deserves to be studied, improved, and lived to the fullest.
7. Pursuit of Truth:
Truth should be sought through study, observation, dialogue, and reflection.
8. Universality of Knowledge:
All knowledge is interconnected. The humanist ideal is a cultured person with a broad and well-rounded education.
9. Tolerance and Dialogue:
Many humanists championed intellectual debate, respect for differing opinions, and the peaceful resolution of conflicts.
10. Compatibility of Faith and Reason:
Most early humanists did not reject religion. They believed that faith and reason could complement each other.
A very brief reminder:
The first humanists believed in: the dignity of the person + reason + education + critical thinking + classical culture + the search for truth.
These ideas paved the way for the Renaissance, modern science, and many of today's conceptions of education and culture.
Francesco Petrarch:
Francesco Petrarch is unanimously considered by historians to be the father and founder of humanism. This 14th-century Italian poet and philosopher (1304–1374) established the ideological, literary, and cultural foundations that gave rise to the entire humanist movement.
The main reasons for granting him this title are:
Rediscovery of the Classics: He dedicated his life to searching for, rescuing, and translating forgotten manuscripts from Greco-Roman antiquity in monasteries throughout Europe, especially the works of Cicero.
A Break with the Middle Ages: He was the first to define the medieval period as a time of "darkness" and to propose a cultural "renaissance" based on the light of reason and classical literature.
A New Christian Approach: He demonstrated that the study of ancient pagan authors did not conflict with the Christian faith, but rather served to elevate the dignity of humankind.
The Model of the Intellectual: He went down in history not only for his poetry (such as the Canzoniere), but also for establishing the figure of the humanist committed to education and critical thinking.
Francesco Petrarch laid the intellectual foundations that, a century and a half later, Erasmus of Rotterdam (1466–1536) would bring to its highest expression during the Northern Renaissance.
The influence of Petrarch's thought on Erasmus and subsequent humanists can be summarized in four fundamental axes:
The Philological Method: Petrarch initiated the recovery of ancient texts, focusing on the purification of Latin. Erasmus adopted this method and applied it directly to sacred texts, translating the New Testament directly from Greek to correct the errors of the medieval Vulgate.
Humanist Christianity: Petrarch argued that classical philosophy and the Christian faith were compatible. Erasmus developed this idea, creating the "Philosophy of Christ," which prioritized an inner, moral religiosity based on the Gospel, far removed from the rigid dogmatism of the Middle Ages.
Critique of Scholasticism: Both authors rejected the medieval method of study (Scholasticism), which they accused of getting lost in absurd and empty theological debates. Instead, they advocated an education based on the humanities (grammar, rhetoric, history, and ethics) to improve the individual.
The Republic of Letters: Petrarch used letters to create a network of intellectuals beyond borders. Erasmus became the undisputed leader of this European community of traveling thinkers, already using the printing press to spread critical thinking and tolerance throughout the continent.
Other key authors and philosophers of this early humanism:
Beyond Petrarch, early humanism (14th and 15th centuries) was consolidated thanks to a group of nuanced thinkers who traveled, governed, and transformed education in Europe.
The key authors and philosophers of this first stage are divided into three major currents:
1. The founders of literature and method (14th century):
- Giovanni Boccaccio (1313–1375): A close friend of Petrarch. He was key in the recovery of classical myths and the Greek language in Italy. Although best known for the Decameron, his great humanist contribution was the defense of poetry as a tool for moral knowledge.
- Coluccio Salutati (1331–1406): Chancellor of Florence. He was the bridge between Petrarch and the next generation. He established Civic Humanism, arguing that intellectuals should not isolate themselves to study, but rather put their knowledge at the service of politics and the freedom of their city.
- 2 The promoters of Civic Humanism and translation (15th century):
Leonardo Bruni (1370–1444): Historian and Chancellor of Florence. He was the first to translate the works of Plato and Aristotle on a massive scale directly from Greek into Latin, eliminating medieval interpretations. He wrote the history of Florence using a critical method, considered the first text of modern history.
Lorenzo Valla (1407–1457): The master of textual criticism and a key influence on Erasmus of Rotterdam. He demonstrated, through language analysis, that the Donation of Constantine (the document on which the Pope based his earthly power) was a medieval forgery.
- 3 The Philosophers of Neoplatonism and Human Dignity (Late 15th Century):
Marsilio Ficino (1433–1499): Founder of the Platonic Academy of Florence under the patronage of the Physicians. He translated all of Plato's works for the Christian West and formulated a philosophy in which love and beauty were the soul's paths to God.
Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463–1494): Author of the famous Oration on the Dignity of Man, a text considered the "manifesto of humanism." He argued that God did not give man a fixed place in the universe, but rather free will to shape his own destiny through reason.
Civic Humanism (also known as civilis humanitas) represented a true revolution in 15th-century political thought, especially in the Republic of Florence. Until then, the medieval ideal promoted the idea that the intellectual or virtuous man should withdraw from the world (contemplative life) to save his soul.
Authors such as Coluccio Salutati, Leonardo Bruni, and later Machiavelli, challenged this view, transforming the politics of the time through several structural changes:
1. Triumph of the "Active Life" over the Contemplative Life: Civic humanists argued that true virtue (virtus) was not demonstrated in isolation in a monastery, but in commitment to the community. The good citizen had a moral obligation to participate in government, hold public office, and defend the laws and liberties of his homeland.
2. Justification of the Republic and Liberty (Libertas): In response to the medieval current that justified absolute monarchy as a reflection of divine order, civic humanism used the texts of Cicero and Aristotle to legitimize the Republic. They argued that only under a republican system, where citizens participate in the making of laws, is true freedom and the development of human potential possible.
3. Politics as a Secular and Rational Science: Politics began to separate from theology. It was no longer expected that a ruler would govern based solely on divine providence, but rather on prudence, reason of state, and history. Leonardo Bruni, for example, wrote speeches and official histories for Florence to demonstrate that a city's success depended on the virtues of its citizens and leaders, not on ambition.
4. Professionalization of Diplomacy and the Bureaucracy: Rulers (from republics to dukes and popes) began to hire humanists as chancellors, secretaries, and ambassadors. The reason was practical: humanists mastered rhetoric, persuasion, and classical Latin. The art of modern diplomacy was born in this period, using words and rational negotiation instead of immediately resorting to war.
5. Meritocracy versus Nobility of Blood: Civic humanism attacked the concept of hereditary nobility. They instilled the idea that true nobility stemmed not from lineage or blood, but from education, merit, and public service. This facilitated the political rise of the commercial and financial bourgeoisie (such as the Physicians in Florence).
These ideas laid the theoretical groundwork that, decades later, would allow Niccolò Machiavelli to write *The Prince*, the foundational text of modern political science.
Niccolò Machiavelli (1469–1527) represents the culmination and radical transformation of Civic Humanism. As secretary and diplomat of the Republic of Florence, Machiavelli inherited the legacy of Bruni and Salutati, but lived through a period of profound crisis (the foreign invasions of Italy) that led him to abandon idealism and establish modern political realism.
His figure completes the circle of political humanism through the following contributions:
1. The humanist method applied to the fullest: "Read the ancients": Following the humanist tradition, Machiavelli uses the history of classical antiquity—especially the Roman Republic—as the great manual for solving the problems of the present. His great work, the Discourses on the First Ten Books of Livy, is a pure exercise in humanism: extracting political lessons from classical texts.
2. The redefinition of Virtù (Secular virtue): For the first civic humanists, political virtue was linked to Christian morality and goodness. Machiavelli breaks this link: Machiavellian virtù is the effectiveness, strength, cunning, and adaptability of the ruler to maintain the State and order. The virtuous politician is the one who achieves results, even if he has to act against morality if necessity demands it.
3. The definitive separation between Politics and Ethics: While civic humanism had begun in politics, Machiavelli consummates its absolute separation. In The Prince (1513), he makes it clear that the rules of power are independent of the rules of individual morality. The ruler should not think about how things "should be" (utopian idealism), but about how they actually are (political realism).
4. The defense of the Republic and citizen participation: Despite the Prince's reputation for absolutism, Machiavelli's true thought is profoundly republican, a direct line of civic humanism. In the Discourses, he argues that the best form of government is a republic with strong laws and active citizens. He proposed that Florence create a militia of its own citizens instead of relying on mercenaries, embodying the humanist ideal of defending the homeland with one's own body.
5. Human beings as the sole driving force of history: Machiavelli eliminates any providentialist or divine explanation of politics. The success or failure of a state depends solely on two human and earthly factors: Virtue (human action) and Fortune (chance or circumstances). A good politician is one who knows how to master fortune through reason and decisive action.
Machiavelli represents the culmination of this because he takes the tools of humanism (classical history, reason, anthropocentrism) and strips them of moralistic rhetoric. In doing so, it destroyed medieval political thought and inaugurated the political science of the Modern Age.
Historical (or Renaissance) humanism ended at the end of the 16th century (around 1600), while current (or contemporary) humanism began in the mid-20th century, approximately from 1945 onward.
Between these two periods, there is a gap of almost three centuries during which thought was transformed by the Enlightenment and the Industrial Revolution.
Renaissance humanism gradually lost strength and became diluted due to three key factors that changed Europe:
The Religious Crisis: The division of Europe between Martin Luther's Protestant Reformation and the Catholic Church's Counter-Reformation (beginning with the Council of Trent in 1545) ended the spirit of dialogue and tolerance of the early humanists.
The Birth of Modern Science: With the Copernican Revolution and figures like Galileo Galilei, the intellectual method changed. The new thinkers no longer sought truth in ancient books (as humanism had done), but in the observation of nature and mathematics.
The transition to the Baroque: Optimism regarding the dignity of humankind and the harmony of the universe gave way to a more pessimistic, skeptical, and disillusioned view of reality, characteristic of the 17th century.
